The Hispaniolan solenodon is a unique, and at first glance somewhat peculiar, animal. Even its scientific name conveys the unusualness of the species — Solenodon paradoxus.

One of two extant solenodon species (the other being the Cuban solenodon), the Hispaniolan solenodon is found only in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It, like its Cuban counterpart, is endangered.

As members of the mammalian Order Eulipotyphla, which includes insectivores such as shrews, hedgehogs, and moles, solenodons diverged from all other living mammals over 70 million years ago. They are only found in the Caribbean, making them an important priority for the conservation of evolutionary diversity. This long history means that they have survived countless extinction events and only today are threatened.

Dr. Alexis Mychajliw (Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the La Brea Tar Pits & Museum of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County) has been studying the Hispaniolan solenodon as part of her research on Caribbean mammals for more than five years. Much of her work has focused on flipping the narrative of the Hispaniolan solenodon from endangered weirdo to resilient survivor.

In partnership with the National Museum of Natural History in Santo Domingo and the conservation group Grupo Jaragua, Mychajliw and her colleagues have taken a “conservation paleobiology” approach to understanding the long-term drivers of decline and resilience for the Hispaniolan solenodon and Hispaniolan hutia (Plagiodontia aedium) — the two remaining nonvolant mammals in Hispaniola.

Together with her colleagues Lauren Gibson, Ernst Rupp, and Yolanda Leon, Mychajliw worked to better understand the determinants of the decline of solenodons across Hispaniola. Specifically, is this decline a recent trend linked to introduced predators like dogs, is it linked to the first arrival of humans, or part of a larger arc of decline linked to millennial scale climate change? They addressed these questions by compiling data on solenodon occurrences over time from numerous sources — including some historic documents from the Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL).

“XIII. Notes on the habits and external characters of the Solenodon of San Domingo (Solenodon paradoxus)” by Alpheus Hyatt, published in 1907, was a particularly informative source for this research.

“I would never have found this document without BHL,” shares Mychajliw. It is now one of her favorite publications in the Library.

The article begins: “Although Solenodon paradoxus of San Domingo and Haiti was discovered and imperfectly described as early as 1839, several years before the Cuban species (Solenodon cubanus) was known to science, it is still practically unknown to recent zoologists. The published descriptions of this rare and interesting mammal are vague and unsatisfactory.”

Hyatt then proceeds to discuss the species’ rarity — even as early as 1900, it was already in decline: “And when, in December 1906, I undertook a collecting-trip to San Domingo with the avowed intention of obtaining the Solenodon, prominent zoologists stated that the quest was hopeless, one of them saying I would be as likely to secure specimens of ghosts as of Solenodon paradoxus” [emphasis added].

Hyatt also provides clues to the threats facing solenodons, writing that dogs are effective predators (unfortunately, a trend that has only increased): “They also claim that when pursued it frequently trips itself and tumbles heels over head. When hunted with dogs, it thrusts its head into the nearest hole or shelter, and allows itself to be captured without resistance.”

Ultimately, Mychajliw and her colleagues found that humans, and in particular their dogs, are a recent and significantly urgent threat for solenodons. While solenodons survived past climate change and the arrival of humans, the last hundred years have provided an unprecedented challenge for this wonderful and weird species.

Mychajliw’s work on Caribbean mammals is part of her larger research speciality working at the intersection of paleoecology and conservation biology. In addition to her work in Hispaniola, she also studies collections excavated from asphaltic fossil deposits in Los Angeles at the La Brea Tar Pits and Trinidad as part of the La Brea Tar Pits & Museum international “BREAS” initiative (Bridging Research and Education in Asphaltic Sites) to help create pictures of these regions’ ecosystems throughout history.

Using fossils, historic data extracted from the literature, and modern-day observations of living mammals, Mychajliw reconstructs population trends and the environmental and anthropogenic perturbations that may shape their trajectories over time. These ecological experiments can help guide conservation planning and inform specific management decisions.

BHL has been an important source of literature for Mychajliw’s research since she first discovered it as a PhD student. Her research into the drivers of Caribbean mammal extinction over the past 10,000 years required developing species lists for each island, a general understanding of extinction timing, and reconstructing the species’ body sizes — a task that seemed likely to require many museum visits to take measurements of teeth and bones.

“Luckily, I found BHL!” lauds Mychajliw. “As an early graduate student, I didn’t have the time or funds to travel to so many different museums. Instead, through BHL, I found many historic documents of the earliest excavations in the Caribbean.”

Using documents like “A second collection of Mammals from caves near St. Michel, Haiti” (Miller 1929), Mychajliw was able to obtain locality information and measurements on specimens collected from the Caribbean. She compiled this information into a database, which she could use to populate body size equations and make estimates of extinct vs. extant species body sizes.

Through this work, Mychajliw identified two waves of size-biased extinctions in the Caribbean, with large mammals disappearing at a similar time as human arrival, followed by smaller species disappearing with the arrival of European commensals such as rats and cats. This finding was communicated in a 2017 publication in the Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics (Cooke et al 2017).

“BHL is an incredible resource that is particularly helpful for early career researchers who may not have the funds or connections to visit multiple museums or institutions to collect data,” affirms Mychajliw.

As Mychajliw’s testimonial demonstrates, historic literature like that available at BHL helps researchers incorporate centuries of knowledge into modern research. This can inform studies on everything from paleoecology to conservation, taxonomy, and even the history of science.

“The documents held in BHL inform not just my science itself, but also bring an historical perspective on those who did science before me and how the practice of science has evolved,” explains Mychajliw. “For example, in reading many of the early accounts of scientists who collected samples in the Caribbean, I can see how our societal attitudes on the importance of local knowledge has (hopefully!) changed and become more inclusive in the present day. All of the references I make to early Caribbean authors are male (a “Mr.” so and so receiving this specimen or that) – and I am happy to see more diversity in the present day.”

As Earth’s biodiversity continues to decline at a rate unprecedented in human history, an understanding of the past — from the forces that shape ecosystems to the responses of species to various stressors over time — can help inform strategies and policies to address and combat modern-day threats. By providing open access to global literature collections and the valuable data they contain, BHL will continue to provide researchers with the information they need to study and conserve life on Earth.

The “Anthropocene Defaunation” and the Lost Florida Zestos Skipper

We are experiencing a “biological annihilation.”

That’s how scientists are describing the biodiversity loss in what is being recognized as Earth’s sixth mass extinction event [1]. Not only are extinctions occurring at a rate 100 times higher than would occur naturally, but overall populations are also shrinking at alarming rates [1,2].

A 2014 Science report termed it the “Anthropocene defaunation”, reflecting humanity’s role in this biodiversity loss [3]. Among the casualties in this “Age of Humans” is one of “the few butterflies known to have become extinct in the United States” [4] — The Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly Epargyreus zestos oberon (Worthington, 1881) [5]. This butterfly’s story draws forth science, taxonomy, history, and art from the Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL) for a cutting edge representation of biodiversity in challenging times.

The recorded scientific history of the Zestos Skipper Butterfly extends back to the early nineteenth century. In the 1819 publication Verzeichniss bekannter Schmettlinge [sic], Jacob Hübner first listed the butterfly as Proteides zestos. Hübner later illustrated the P. zestos holotype (type locality “Surinam”, probably in error) via two figures of a female specimen in his Zuträge zur Sammlung exotischer Schmetterlinge (1826). However, as Hübner provided no description to accompany the name and illustration, it was not until 1832, after his death, that his assistant Carl Geyer officially described Proteides zestos as a new species.

Over the next 50 years, this rather unassuming reddish-brown Skipper, with a range from the Florida Keys to the Caribbean, was reclassified and redescribed by various authors. In Dublin, William F. Kirby (1871) assigned it to a new genus (Telegonus zestos) and in Chicago, Charles E. Worthington (1881), examining 31 specimens from Marco Island, Florida, described it as a new species (Endamus [sic] oberon), based on its resemblance to Eudamus tityrus. In 1884, Eugene M. Aaron, after evaluating over 160 specimens of tityrus and zestos, concluded that Proteides zestos, Telegonus zestos, and Eudamus oberon were in fact the same species.

Dr. Marc C. Minno (Insect Ecologist with Eco-Cognizant in Gainesville, FL) began searching for the Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly in 2006. At his request, Skipper butterfly expert Dr. George T. Austin evaluated Zestos Skipper butterfly specimens in the Florida Museum of Natural History collection with type localities from Florida and the Caribbean. Before his death, Austin concluded that the Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly actually represents a unique subspecies or sibling species [6]. Based on his own observations and Austin’s comments, Minno believes “oberon” to be the valid name of the Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly population and has, until he can complete Austin’s study, designated it as Epargyreus zestos oberon (Worthington, 1881) [5].

Over the past 50 years, the Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly population has been in decline. According to Minno, this butterfly, “once locally common in coastal areas of southern Florida”, had “disappeared from the mainland” by the mid-1980s. The last known sightings of Florida Zestos Skippers occurred in January 2004, at the Key West Tropical Forest and Botanical Garden in Stock Island, Florida [6].

In 2012, Minno et al., concluded a six-year survey looking for declining butterfly species in southern Florida [4]. Because the study failed to produce a single sighting of the Florida Zestos Skipper, in any stage of life, it was recommended that it be presumed extinct. Together with the Rockland Meske’s Skipper, these represent the “first [known] butterfly extinctions in Florida” [4].

The Florida Zestos Skipper exists now only in museums and the pages of historic literature, its memory preserved in natural history collections, libraries, and repositories like the Biodiversity Heritage Library.

Vanity: An Artist’s Story of Extinction and Rediscovery in the “Age of Humans”

The Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly is just one of the “biological specimens” featured in Vanity, an art installation by Joseph Gregory Rossano. Created for and with the support of the Museum of Glass (MOG) in Tacoma, Washington, Vanity was on display at MOG from March 3 – August 30, 2015. The exhibition tells the story of eleven species and subspecies, presumed extinct, presented through the lens of humanity’s role in their demise.

The installation includes eleven “vanity” cabinets. The cabinet doors, Rossano’s “portrait” of man, are composed of imperfect wood laminate adorned with visual representations of Homo sapiens’ DNA barcode. On the bottom corner of each door, a scientific label hints to the species’ or subspecies’ identity inside the cabinet, beneath these human “fingerprints”. Rossano depicts the species through “faded” pencil portraits and as transparent glass sculptures suspended in clear liquid, inside period specimen jars. The overall effect is of a species vanishing behind the portrait of humanity…just as it has in reality.

Beneath each cabinet are mirrored, almond-shaped glass sculptures and in front of each, a chair with a specimen label: Homo sapiens. These objects accentuate humanity’s role in the loss of each species, for, as Rossano articulates in the exhibition catalogue, “When viewing Vanity from a seated position, we see ourselves reflected in these forms that echo the divine. In our vanity we reflect generations of humans who saw themselves as divine, while the truly divine—our 11 innocent and bygone species, subspecies, and their stories—reflect the truth about us” [7].

Rossano’s use of glass as a medium is equally deliberate: “like our environment, glass is transparent, fragile, and reflective — transparent in that it hides nothing, fragile in that once damaged it may never be repaired, and reflective of how we have impacted it” [8].

Each cabinet also offers a QR code leading to historical accounts of the enclosed species. These accounts summarize the species’ “discovery” (collection date, type locality, collector, scientific illustrations, etc.), humanity’s role in its extinction, and the year it was declared “Extinct”. To produce these species tales, Rossano collaborated with Sandra I. Berríos-Torres, MD. Berríos-Torres served as author of the 11 historical accounts and as Editorial Director of the exhibition catalogue, on behalf of Joseph Gregory Rossano.

The Biodiversity Heritage Library was a crucial resource for Berríos-Torres. Consulting dozens of publications in BHL while conducting research for Vanity, she ultimately cited 16 of them in the historical accounts that were incorporated into the exhibition and catalogue. The Florida Zestos Skipper Butterfly had the highest number of BHL citations in Vanity. Berríos-Torres used BHL to follow the butterfly’s taxonomic journey from its first listing by Hübner in 1819 to Aaron’s evaluation of the species in 1884.

“BHL resources were invaluable in my research for Vanity, in particular for accessing publications with the first collection, scientific description, and illustrations,” affirms Berríos-Torres. “The publications dated from 1819 to 2002, were published in English, German, Dutch, and French, and were contributed to BHL by 10 institutions, including university libraries, museums, government libraries, scientific research institutions, and botanical garden libraries across the USA, Canada, and England.”

From BOLD to Vanity

Berríos-Torres is an orthopaedic surgeon and a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention trained epidemiologist who has conducted laboratory and field research on infectious diseases and had a lead role in public health responses to national and international infectious disease outbreaks. Berríos-Torres was initially introduced to Rossano in the fall of 2009 at the opening of his BOLD exhibit, which examined species identity through art and incorporated Barcode of Life Data Systems‘ (BOLD) DNA barcodes into the installation’s sculptures.

BOLD was inspired by Rossano’s 2008 visit to the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG) in northwestern Costa Rica at the invitation of Bradley Zlotnick, MD. At ACG, Rossano learned about DNA barcoding and met Zlotnick’s mentors, tropical ecologists Dr. Daniel H. Janzen and Dr. Winnie Hallwachs. Their 2004 landmark study on cryptic butterfly species, in collaboration with researchers at Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History (John M. Burns) and the University of Guelph, Canada (Paul D. N. Hebert, Erin H. Penton), “…illustrate(d) the value of DNA barcoding, especially when coupled with traditional taxonomic tools, in disclosing hidden diversity” [9]. Barcodes offered a “rediscovery” of biodiversity. Concurrently with BOLD, Rossano’s Whitewashed exhibition “…aimed at revealing our own species’ whitewashing of Man’s relationship with nature throughout time” [7].

In 2013, the art critic for the Seattle Stranger drew a parallel between Whitewashed and a blog post about eight animal species and three subspecies reported as “Extinct”, including the Eskimo Curlew, Numenius borealis (Forster, 1772), one of the species highlighted in Whitewashed and also featured in the blog. The post inspired Rossano to imagine a new installation on extinction, and Vanity was born.

Vanity and the Biodiversity Heritage Library

Berríos-Torres first discovered BHL in December 2014 while performing literature searches for the species’ historical accounts in Vanity. It quickly became a daily part of her research process.

“Between December 2014 and March 2015, in the three short months allotted to research and compose the historical accounts of the 11 animals depicted in the exhibition, I used BHL on a daily basis,” shares Berríos-Torres. “In the following months, as Editorial Director of the Vanity exhibition catalogue, I used BHL several times a week, in search of illustrations.”

Tracking down relevant publications required quite a bit of sleuthing. For this, BHL’s various advanced search options proved invaluable.

“In general, the most important aspect of the BHL resources lay in the ability to access first descriptions and early illustrations,” explains Berríos-Torres. “At the onset, the only information I had was the species’ or subspecies’ common and scientific names. A Google search on the scientific names yielded two additional pieces of information: the last name of the person who first described it in the scientific literature and the date of that description. Rarely could I readily find the full name of the person who described it or the original citation. The opportunity to employ varied advanced search strategies in BHL proved indispensable, particularly when starting with such limited information on the subject.”

In addition to the Zestos Skipper Butterfly, BHL provided valuable references for several other species featured in Vanity, including a freshwater shrimp from Java Macrobrachium leptodactylus (de Man, 1879a), the Clouded Leopard of Formosa (Taiwan) Neofelis nebulosa (Griffith, 1821), and the Scioto Madtom Catfish Noturus trautmani (Taylor, 1969).

The Scioto Madtom Catfish was first described by Smithsonian scientist Dr. William R. Taylor, former curator of fishes at the National Museum of Natural History, based on a “funny looking catfish” collected by Dr. Milton B. Trautman in 1943, from Big Darby Creek in Pickaway County, Ohio [14]. Using BHL, Berríos-Torres was able to retrieve Taylor’s original description and a photograph of the holotype, a male specimen housed in the Smithsonian collections. Scioto madtom has not been observed since Trautman’s last collected specimen in 1957 [15]. Habitat loss and competition from the Northern Madtom Noturus stigmosus (Taylor, 1969) may have contributed to Scioto Madtom’s extinction [15,16]. In 2013, the IUCN Red List declared Noturus trautmani “Extinct” [17].

Beyond Vanity

The themes in BOLD and Vanity continue to evolve and converge. In 2017, Dr. Jacob J.D. Egge, scientific collaborator on the Vanity exhibition catalogue, championed bringing Vanity to The University Gallery at Pacific Lutheran University (PLU, Tacoma, Washington). There, Rossano expanded the installation to include select biological specimens from Washington state and housed in PLU’s Burton Ostenson Natural History Museum collection. The specimens were displayed atop multiple antique mirrored vanities across from the original installation and included a taxidermied woodpecker alongside Rossano’s clear glass sculpture of the same. Berríos-Torres compiled a supplement to the Vanity exhibition catalogue composed of natural history summaries of the PLU specimens, written by students in Egge’s Natural History of Vertebrates course. The students’ writings were incorporated into the expanded installation through QR codes on the wall, alongside the corresponding museum specimen. In 2018, Egge and Rossano presented on their Vanity collaboration at the University of Puget Sound’s Art|Sci: Art+Science salon.

The La Jolla Historical Society, inspired by Vanity, invited Rossano to create a work that reflected a part of San Diego’s biodiversity for the 2018 La Jolla Canyons: Place, Diversity, Connections exhibition (Wisteria Cottage, La Jolla, California). The Solitary Vireo cryptic species complex [18,19], revealed by DNA sequencing to be three distinct songbird species, includes Cassin’s vireo Vireo cassinii (Xántus, 1858), the only one of the three that migrates through San Diego County. Rossano displayed three morphologically indistinguishable clear glass vireo sculptures, blown in the likeness of museum collection specimens and identified solely through scientific tags or DNA barcodes (as in BOLD), atop an antique mirrored vanity (as in Vanity at PLU).

BHL: Discovery and Rediscovery for Bioliteracy

Vanity asks the viewer to face their own culpability in the loss of our biodiversity heritage. The question is, will we listen? Will we heed the warnings that the tales of species like the Zestos Skipper convey? Or will our own vanity get in the way? As this heritage continues to disappear, do we face a future where the historic literature and museum collections become the only places where we can explore and appreciate these “lost” species? As Dr. Minno wrote in his personal reflection on the Zestos Skipper Butterfly for the Vanity exhibition catalogue:

“[Vanity] gives us a chance to think about our role in this beautiful and vibrant world. The butterflies are telling us that something is wrong with the environment. We must learn to live modestly and to protect our planet if butterflies, as well as humans, are to survive” [20].

From historic literature and museum specimens, to traditional morphological taxonomy and modern DNA barcoding techniques, Vanity and BOLD convey and reflect more than just humanity’s role in this epoch’s loss of biodiversity. Rossano’s installations highlight the “renaissance of taxonomy” [21], the need for continued scientific exploration, and the opportunities that abound in gaining a better understanding Earth’s biodiversity. Mora et al., have predicted that, “In spite of 250 years of taxonomic classification and over 1.2 million species already catalogued in a central database…some 86% of existing species on Earth and 91% of species in the ocean still await description” [22].

As Berríos-Torres’ reflection on her research for Vanity demonstrates, access to historic literature, images, and other library materials are vital to cataloguing, understanding, and communicating Earth’s biological heritage.

“BHL is unparalleled and vital in providing worldwide access to a free, publicly available, digital biodiversity repository and reference library,” affirms Berríos-Torres. “For scientists and the public alike, BHL complements the DNA barcode taxonomy reference sequences to discover and rediscover biodiversity. Together they are rich wells of collaboration democratizing global bioliteracy.”

 

Acknowledgements

Berríos-Torres wishes to acknowledge Joseph Gregory Rossano, Museum of Glass, Bradley Zlotnick, MD, C.B. Bell III, and all Collaborating Scientists:

• Franco Andreone, PhD, Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Italy (Cape Verde Giant Skink)
• Neil Burkhead, MS, (Retired) United States Geological Survey (USGS), Southeast Ecological Science Center, USA (Santa Cruz [Monkey Spring] Pupfish)
• Po-Jen Chiang, PhD Formosan Wild Sound Conservation Science Center Co. Taiwan (Clouded Leopard of Formosa)
• Neil Cumberlidge, PhD, Chair, IUCN Freshwater Crustacean Specialist Group, USA (Freshwater Shrimp from Java)
• Jacob J. D. Egge, PhD, Pacific Lutheran University, USA (Scioto Madtom Catfish)
• Robert E. Gill, Jr. MS, USGS, Alaska Science Center, USA (Eskimo Curlew)
• Lonnie I. Grassman, PhD Texas A&M University, USA (Clouded Leopard of Formosa)
• Marc C. Minno, PhD, Eco-Cognizant, Inc. USA (Rockland Meske’s Skipper & Florida Zestos Skipper Butterflies)
• Rohan Pethiyagoda B.Sc., M.Phil, (Retired) Australian Museum, Australia (Sri Lanka Spiny Eel)
• Edwin P. (Phil) Pister, MA – Desert Fishes Council, USA
• Hubert Planton, DVM, Veterinarian and African Wildlife Consultant, France (Western Black Rhino)
• Claudio Soto-Azat, MV, MSc, PhD, Universidad Andrés Bello, Chile (Northern Darwin Frog)
• Raquel Vasconcelos, PhD, University of Porto, Portugal (Cape Verde Giant Skink)

References

[1] Ceballos G., Ehrlich P.R., Dirzo R. (2017). Biological Annihilation via the Ongoing Sixth Mass Extinction Signaled by Vertebrate Population Losses and Declines. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Jul, 114 (30) E6089-E6096; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1704949114.

[2] Ceballos G., Ehrlich P.R., Barnosky A.D., García A., Pringle R.M., and Palmer T.M. (2015). Accelerated Modern Human–Induced Species Losses: Entering the Sixth Mass Extinction. Science Advances 1(5). e1400253DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1400253.

[3] Dirzo R., Young H.S., Galetti M., Ceballos G., Isaac N.J.B., Collen B. (2014). Defaunation in the Anthropocene. Science 345(6195): pp. 401-406. DOI: 10.1126/science.1251817.

[4] Minno M. C., Daniels J., Jue D. K. (2012). Statement on the Extinction, Decline, and Loss of Butterflies in South Florida. Available at http://www.bio.miami.edu/horvitz/Plant-animal%20interactions%202013/conservation/required%20readings/Statement%20on%20Species%20Loss%20June%202012%20MC%20Minno.pdf. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[5] Schweitzer D. F., Minno M. C., and Wagner D. L. (2011). Rare, Declining, and P​oorly Known Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera) of Forests and Woodlands in the Eastern United States. U.S. Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, FHTET-2011-01. USDA Forest Service, Morgantown, West Virginia. 517 pp.

[6] Minno M.C. (2010). Butterfly Extinctions in South Florida. American Butterflies 8(3):17. Available at: http://www.naba.org/pubs/ab183/ab183_extinctions.pdf. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[7] Rossano, J.G. (2015). Preface. In S.I. Berríos-Torres (Ed.), Joseph Gregory Rossano: Vanity (pp.13-16). Tacoma, WA: Museum of Glass.

[8] Lawrimore S. (2015). Swan Song. In S.I. Berríos-Torres (Ed.), Joseph Gregory Rossano: Vanity (pp.21-26). Tacoma, WA: Museum of Glass.

[9] Hebert P.D.N., Penton E.H., Burns J.M., Janzen D.H., and Hallwachs W. (2004). Ten Species in One: DNA Barcoding Reveals Cryptic Species in the Neotropical Skipper Butterfly Astraptes Fulgerator. PNAS 101(41): 14812-14817. www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0406166101. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[10] Buckley-Beason V.A. et al. (2006). Molecular Evidence for Species-Level Distinctions in Clouded Leopards. Current Biology 16(23):2371-2376. Available at: http://www.cloudedleopard.org/Documents/Val_CB_2006.pdf. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[11] Grassman L., Lynam A., Mohamad S., Duckworth J.W., Bora J., Wilcox D., Ghimirey Y., Reza A. & Rahman H. (2016). Neofelis nebulosa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T14519A97215090. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T14519A97215090.en. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[12] De Grave S., Smith K.G., Adeler N.A., Allen D.J., Alvarez F., Anker A., et al. (2015). Dead Shrimp Blues: A Global Assessment of Extinction Risk in Freshwater Shrimps (Crustacea: Decapoda: Caridea). PLoS ONE 10(3): e0120198. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0120198. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[13] Berríos-Torres S.I. (2015). Freshwater Shrimp from Java. Macrobrachium leptodactylus (de Man, 1879a). In S.I. Berríos-Torres (Ed.), Joseph Gregory Rossano: Vanity (pp.52-56). Tacoma, WA: Museum of Glass.

[14] U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). (1976). National Digital Library. Milton B. Trautman Oral History Transcript. Interview with Milton B. Trautman. Interviewer Michael Smith. “Audio Cassette Dub from Reel-to Reel”. July 1976. Available at: http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/ref/collection/document/id/1031. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[15] Scioto madtom (Noturus trautmani) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Midwest Region, Ohio Ecological Services Field Office, Columbus, Ohio. Available at: http://www.fws.gov/midwest/endangered/recovery/5yr_rev/pdf/scma5yr2009.pdf. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[16] King C.C. (1981). Prairies of the Darbie Plains in West-Central Ohio. Stuckie & Reese. Ohio Biological Survey Biology Notes 15:108-127. Available at: http://images.library.wisc.edu/EcoNatRes/EFacs/NAPC/NAPC06/reference/econatres.napc06.cking.pdf. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[17] NatureServe. Noturus trautmani. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2013: e.T14908A19032932. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T14908A19032932.en. Accessed on 6 December 2018.

[18] Murray B. W., McGillivray W. B., Barlow J. C., Beech R. N., and Strobeck C. (1994). The Use of Cytochrome B Sequence Variation in Estimation of Phylogeny in the Vireonidae. The Condor 96:1037-1054. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v096n04/p1037-p1054.pdf. Accessed on 17 December 2018.

[19] Johnson N.K. (1995). Speciation in Vireos. I. Macrogeographic Patterns of Allozymic Variation in the Vireo Solitarius Complex in the Contiguous United States. The Condor 97:903-919. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v097n04/p0903-p0919.pdf. Accessed on 17 December 2018.

[20] Minno, M.C. (2015). Reflections on the Rockland Meske’s Skipper Butterfly and the Zestos Skipper Butterfly. In S.I. Berríos-Torres (Ed.), Joseph Gregory Rossano: Vanity (pp.52-56). Tacoma, WA: Museum of Glass.

[21] Miller S.E. (2007). DNA Barcoding and the Renaissance of Taxonomy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(12): pp. 4775-6. Epub 2007 Mar 15. https://www.pnas.org/content/104/12/4775. Accessed on 17 December 2018.

[22] Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B. (2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLoS Biol 9(8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. Accessed on 17 December 2018.

This month, we’re publishing a series of blog posts outlining the importance of biodiversity literature, made available for free and open access through the Biodiversity Heritage Library, to today’s scientific research and conservation initiatives. With your help, we can help save biodiversity. 

Remembering Extinct Species

First published illustration of a Passenger Pigeon, Extinct. Catesby, Mark. The natural history of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (1754). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10900155.

On September 1, 1914, at approximately 1pm in the afternoon, a passenger pigeon named Martha died. Her death marked the extinction of her entire species. It is “one of the fastest and most dramatic extinctions in human history,” according to the Zoological Society of London.  A population of several billion birds was decimated in less than a century thanks to over-hunting and habitat destruction. From the first published image of a passenger pigeon by Mark Catesby in 1754, to a poignant record of population declines by Vernon Bailey in an 1892 fieldbook, and the final autopsy report of “the last living representative of its race,” the passenger pigeon’s tragic demise is well-documented in BHL.

Sloane’s Urania Moth (top), Extinct. Kirby, W.F. A handbook to the order Lepidoptera. v. 3 (1897). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/19869923.

As many as 30%-50% of all species may be facing extinction by the mid-21st century, according to the Center for Biological Diversity. Some extinctions, such as that of the passenger pigeon, are internationally notorious, while others, such as the Rodrigues Day Gecko, Sloane’s Urania moth, or the Saint Helena Olive, are less infamous but no less dispiriting. Each represents another step towards earth’s sixth great extinction event.

Saint Helena Olive, Extinct. Hooker, William Jackson. Icones plantarum or figures, with brief descriptive characters and remarks, of new or rare plants, selected from the author’s herbarium. v. 11 (1867-71). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16044972.

Historical literature, accounts in archival sources like fieldbooks, and museum specimens are the only remaining record of these species. “Historic literature provides written accounts and illustrations of [extinct species] from first-hand observations before they became extinct,” including phenotypic descriptions like habitat, diet, behavior, and phenology, explains Dr. Helen James, curator of Birds at the National Museum of Natural History, in a Smithsonian Libraries article. This depth of data does not always accompany museum specimens, not to mention the fact that the physical appearance of some species undergoes a radical transformation in death. Thus, for scientists to obtain a complete picture of the life, morphology, and phylogeny of extinct species, taxidermied specimens must be used in conjunction with written and illustrated primary sources.

Rodrigues Day Gecko, Extinct. Catalogue of the lizards in the British Museum (Natural History) 2d. ed., v. 1 (1885). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/18438199.

Learning from Extinctions

Preserving knowledge about extinct species is about more than just maintaining a record of the life we have lost. These historic accounts can also be used to help conserve endangered species. Examination of the behaviors and anatomy of extinct organisms can help tell us what made them vulnerable in the first place and can be directly applicable to threatened species.

The historic record also provides insight into how an extinction will affect an ecosystem. Species do not live in a vacuum. “The demise of one…species can indirectly cause another to become extinct,” according to a 2012 study from the University of Exeter. “Any extinction can create a ripple effect across a food web, with far-reaching consequences for many other animals.” Examining the relationships within an ecosystem, richly documented in literature and fieldbooks, can help us identify which species will be affected by biodiversity loss, and what form those effects might take. Extrapolating knowledge about ecosystems affected by extinctions to similar environments can help us predict the ramifications of biodiversity loss in expanded locales.

The Thylacine, an apex predator in Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea before it became extinct in the early 20th century. Lydekker, Richard. A hand-book to the marsupialia and monotremata. (1896). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/15043966.

New Hope for Rediscovered Species

Occasionally, species that were believed extinct are miraculously rediscovered. For example, the Arakan Forest Turtle was thought to be extinct for nearly 100 years until a team of conservationists stumbled upon specimens at a Chinese food market in 1994. The information in historic literature about these species is critical to crafting policies to protect remaining populations.

Akaran Forest Turtle. Thought extinct until rediscovered in a Chinese food market in 1994. Anderson, John. Anatomical and zoological researches. v. 2 (1878). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34177985.

To Clone or Not To Clone…

Recent advances in genetics have ignited the possibility of resurrecting extinct species. While debates over the wisdom of such actions continue, should the passenger pigeon ever take flight again, historic records will be vital for success. What kind of habitat do these species require? What do they eat? What wants to eat them? These answers can be found in the pages of books and journals from days gone by.

Will scientists clone a Woolly Mammoth? Westell, W.P. The Book of the Animal Kingdom (1910). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10102652.

Fighting Human-induced Extinctions

Over the past 450 million years, Earth has lost up to 90% of its species on five different occasions, reports a 2014 Time article by Jeffrey Kluger. Asteroids, volcanoes, and gamma rays were to blame in the past. Humans are largely to blame today. But while, barring a genetic miracle, we will never again see a dodo waddle through the woods or the Jamaican Giant Galliwasp scurry across the ground, the historic record ensures that these lost species are not forgotten. Knowledge is power, and thanks to BHL and other like-minded open access initiatives, the knowledge necessary to prevent future human-induced extinctions is available to everyone on any corner of the globe.

Dodo, Extinct. Rothschild, Lionel Walter Rothschild. Extinct Birds (1907). http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/38665759.

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Learn more about the critical roles BHL and historic literature play in discovering new species, supporting conservation, and saving Earth’s biodiversity

Thanks to everyone who tuned in for our #Martha100 TwitterChat with @NMNH (National Museum of Natural History) and @SILibraries (Smithsonian Libraries) yesterday! The chat was a commemoration of the death of the last passenger pigeon, Martha (died Sept. 1, 1914), and a discussion on extinction, conservation, and the importance of historic literature to these fields.

We had some fantastic questions and discussions, as well as great contributions from @fieldmuseum, @SmithsonianArch (Smithsonian Archives), @birdernewjersey (aka Rick Wright, a regular guest blogger for BHL), and @SiobhanLeachman (volunteer with the SI Transcription Center).

Over 350 people participated in the conversation, which produced over 770 tweets seen by over 1.8 million people! BHL saw a 66% increase in the reach of our tweets and a 240% increase in engagement with users on Twitter during the event as compared with our average daily reach and engagements. This translates to a 92% increase in clicks on links, a 117% increase in retweets, a 103% increase in favorites, and a 650% increase in replies. We also saw an increase in our audience, with a 422% increase in Twitter followers compared to our average daily increase.

For a quick snapshot of the conversation, take a look at some of our favorite questions and answers from the TwitterChat:

Q1: @SILibraries: Who was Martha and what is a passenger pigeon?
Answers:
@NMNH: The Passenger Pigeon is an extinct North American pigeon + Martha, the last individual alive, died 9/1/1914
@SILibraries: Passenger Pigeons lived only in North America. @eol has range maps http://ow.ly/B23u5
@BioDivLibrary: Learn more about how the passenger pigeon went extinct http://ow.ly/B25az
@SmithsonianArch: Martha was named after George Washington’s wife!
@SILibraries: Some flocks were thought to contain over 2 billion birds, taking days to pass by.
@SILibraries: How did passenger pigeon get its name? From French passenger, which means to pass by.
@Fezook: Was depletion of numbers below that necessary for migration a main cause of passenger pigeon extinction?
@NMNH: essentially yes; numbers declined because of hunting + habitat loss. They were highly social, probably couldn’t survive in low numbers.
@BioDivLibrary: Passenger Pigeon may have survived commercial slaughter if nesting grounds not destroyed too http://ow.ly/B24Pa

Mark Catesby’s 1754 illustration of the Passenger Pigeon is thought to be the first published depiction of the species. The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. v. 1. 1754. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/10900155

Q2: @SILibraries: How fast are we losing species?
Answers:
@BioDivLibrary: Recent estimates say by as much as 1000x the natural rate http://ow.ly/B21uY
@SILibraries: This article from @SmithsonianMag says 75% of species extinct in next century http://ow.ly/B21Im
@BioDivLibrary: Among terrestrial vertebrates: 322 species extinct since 1500. 25% average decline http://ow.ly/B21ZA
@ROMbiodiversity: and they’ve just announced it might be worse http://ow.ly/B227Z

Q3: @SiobhanLeachman: Was wondering if it was the advent of railroads that helped allow extinction?
Answers:
@BioDivLibrary: Absolutely! Railroads allowed millions to be shipped each year http://ow.ly/B20pt
@BioDivLibrary: Cheap meat, large supply & easy distribution via railroads fueled PP annihilation
@SiobhanLeachman: Assumed it took hunters to PP as well
@birdernewjersey: Yes hotels sprang up at railroad terminus when pigeons were around to be shot
@BioDivLibrary: Telegraph was another tech allowing hunters to know quickly where PP were roosting

Passenger Pigeon among its relatives. Pycraft, W.P. A Book of Birds. 1908. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/13504819

Q4: @SILibraries: What is so important about Taxonomic Literature?
Answers:
@BioDivLibrary: Lit provides record of species and helps scientists identify new species
@BioDivLibrary: Helps track changes in ecosystems & distributions to identify species & habitats to protect
@HsapiensMarissa: Taxonomic lit bridges gaps in understanding of biodiversity concepts so issues can be targeted holistically
@BioDivLibrary: United Nations requires countries to identify/monitor species w/in borders-BHL provides inventories/info
@BioDivLibrary: It also documents extinct species and their life, morphology, and phylogeny
@SILibraries: How does BHL helps scientists in remote countries?
@BioDivLibrary: BHL provides #openaccess to info on species anywhere/everywhere, even if no access to libraries http://ow.ly/B22xt 
@birdernewjersey: Not just in remote countries: I’d hate to go to the library every time I needed to look something up #badolddays

If you missed the chat, or want to see some of the discussions again, you can see the conversations via Storify. Thanks to everyone who participated! It was a great educational and collaborative event!

Learn more about the passenger pigeon and North American bird extinction, and see Martha, the last passenger pigeon, in the joint SIL/BHL exhibit Once There Were Billions at NMNH. Check out images of the Passenger Pigeon and other extinct birds and view Martha’s autopsy in BHL.

Be sure to follow BHL on Twitter for more great biodiversity and literature content and information!