Plant species worldwide face an increasing barrage of threats to their survival. The deliberate collection of rare plants poses a far greater threat to wild plant species. In Wild Plants in Trade (1992), the reasons and effects of wild collection on plants for cultivation and international trade can be found. The trade of orchids, bulbs, cycads, palms and tree ferns, cacti and other succulent plants, carnivorous plants and air plants were introduced in detail in the second half of this book, as well as the attempts to control the collection of these plants by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and governments.

Pictures of some wild plants in trade. Jenkins, M., & Oldfield, S. Wild Plants in Trade. 1992. Contributed in BHL from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. Rights Holder: TRAFFIC International

Forests are also an important source for plant trade. The dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia are today the largest source of hardwoods in international trade, but they are likely to be logged over within a decade or two. India, Burma and Southeast Asia are rich centers of genetic variation in cultivated fruit trees. The scale of exploitation of the forests in the last few decades has led to serious forest degradation. In The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacific (1991), tropical timber trade of Asia and the Pacific areas are discussed in detail, along with government policies and land-use planning. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) created in 1983 is largely concerned with improving market conditions and encouraging the development of national policies aimed at “maintain[ing] the ecological balance in the regions concerned”.

Men scaling or measuring logs in Kimanis, Sabah, Malaysia. Collins, M. N., Sayer, J. A., & Whitmore, T. C. (Eds.). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacific. 1991. Contributed in BHL from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. Rights Holder: IUCN

One of the important economic values of plants, especially herbal plants, is in medicine. Approximately 60,000 plant species are harvested mainly for medicinal usage in the world. Today, people in many Asian countries still use medicinal plants for traditional health care treatments. The World Health Organization (WHO) has also acknowledged the importance of traditional medicines.

The ethnobotany of southern Balochistan, Pakistan: with particular reference to medicinal plants (1992) collects two distinct types of ethnobotanical information: (1) plants used by nomads and village dwellers for nutritional, utilitarian, and medicinal purposes; and (2) plants prescribed and/or dispensed by herbalists or herbal doctors residing in population centers. The Latin binomial, relevant synonyms, field collection number, locality collected, local vernacular name(s), use(s), specifics of preparation(s) or treatment(s), and miscellaneous comments are provided for each species.

Some of the plants in southern Balochistan, Pakistan (left: Nannorhops ritchiana; middle: Euphorbia caducifolia, right: Datura innoxia). Goodman, S. M., & Ghafoor, A. The ethnobotany of southern Balochistan, Pakistan: with particular reference to medicinal plants. 1992. Contributed in BHL from University Library, University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Rights Holder: Field Museum of Natural History.

The medicinal plants of the Philippines (1901) describes the Philippines’ Dicotyledonous (including Polypetalous and Gamopetalous) and Monocotyledonous plants which have medicinal properties.

Ethnobotanical Use of Medicinal Plants by Inhabitants of Al-Mafraq, Jordan (2015) records and lists all medicinal plants that have shown therapeutic effects as analgesic/stimulant by the inhabitants of Al-Mafraq in the northern parts of Jordan during March 2011 to May 2013.

Taxonomy and Conservation of Medicinal Plants in Canal-Irrigated Areas of Punjab, Pakistan (2006) presents the taxonomic position of 131 medicinal plants belonging to 112 families and 52 genera from the canal-irrigated areas of Punjab. Some of the important families are Fabaceae (21 medicinal species), Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae (6 species each), Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae, and Poaceae (5 species each). The life form, parts used and pharmaceutical uses of these plants are also described.

Food and medicinal plants used for childbirth among Yunnanese Chinese in northern Thailand (2003) describes the folk knowledge of medicinal foods and plants used for childbirth care by Yunnanese Chinese in northern Thailand. More than 40 species of steam bath herbs were collected and identified. This paper also makes an initial ethnobotanical comparison with steam bath herbs among other ethnic groups in northern Thailand.

Left: Woman collecting medicinal plants along the roadside in Chiang Mai, a Yunnanese village in Fang district. Right: Steam bath herbs being steamed with eggs in a pan. Liulan, W., Nanakorn, W., & Fukui, K. Food and medicinal plants used for childbirth among Yunnanese Chinese in northern Thailand. 2003. Contributed in BHL from Missouri Botanical Garden, Peter H. Raven Library. CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. Rights Holder: Society of Ethnobiology

References

Jenkins, M., & Oldfield, S. (1992). Wild plants in trade. TRAFFIC International. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.44938

Collins, M. N., Sayer, J. A., & Whitmore, T. C. (Eds.). (1991). The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Asia and the Pacific. Macmillan Press Ltd. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.44927

Goodman, S. M., & Ghafoor, A. (1992). The ethnobotany of southern Balochistan, Pakistan: with particular reference to medicinal plants. Field Museum of Natural History. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.2542

Pardo de Tavera, T. H. (1901). The medicinal plants of the Philippines. (J. B. Thomas, Jr., Trans.). P. Blakiston’s Son & Co. https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.21044

Al-Quran, S. (2014). Ethnobotanical use of medicinal plants by inhabitants of Al-Mafraq, Jordan. Arnaldoa, 21(1), 119-126. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/46625105

Akbar, K. F., & Athar, M. (2006). Taxonomy and conservation of medicinal plants in canal-irrigated areas of Punjab, Pakistan. SIDA, contributions to botany, 22(1), 593-606. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/9182015

Liulan, W., Nanakorn, W., & Fukui, K. (2003). Food and medicinal plants used for childbirth among Yunnanese Chinese in northern Thailand. Journal of Ethnobiology, 23(2), 209-226. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32740176

April 2020 marks the 50th anniversary of Earth Day. Organizations around the world have commemorated the occasion by participating in the global Earth Optimism movement — an initiative spearheaded by the Smithsonian to “turn the conservation conversation from doom and gloom to optimism and opportunity”.

Throughout 2020, the Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL) and our partners are joining the movement by sharing conservation success stories from and made possible by the BHL collection. Follow our blog for conservation stories — past and present — and visit our website for more information and to explore our Earth Optimism book collection.

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Richard Evans Schultes (center) with Salvador Chindoy (left), a renowned Kamëntsá healer from Sibundoy Valley of Colombia. The identity of the individual on the right is not recorded. The year of the photo is unknown, but is likely in the 1940s based on Schultes’ age. Photo courtesy of the Archives of the Economic Botany Library of Oakes Ames, Harvard University.

The conservation movement today encompasses more than the physical management of habitat to preserve plants and animals. Richard Evans Schultes (1915-2001) epitomized the modern conservationist by coupling his taxonomic work on plants with research on the botanical knowledge and culture of local people. Known as the “father of ethnobotany”, Schultes spent almost fourteen years deep within the rainforests of the Amazon learning from multiple Indigenous tribes about their languages, medicines, and relationships to plants.

“Richard Evans Schultes was an extraordinary ethnobotanist who devoted a large part of his professional life to studying the flora of the Amazon as well as of Asia and Europe,” says Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo, a Colombian archaeologist researching Schultes. “For him, forests are like great libraries where knowledge is stored and available for those willing to read it. He admired and respected the Amazonian Natives because they know how to read in this library and have been its keepers for centuries. Burning down the Amazon rainforest to make room for cattle is like burning down a library to make room for a parking lot, and Schultes feared that with today’s rate of destruction ‘climax forests will turn into scrub vegetation,’ never to regain their original state” [1].

Schultes was inspired as a youth to pursue botanical research in remote areas by the book Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon & Andes by the botanist Richard Spruce.

Title Page. Spruce, Richard. Notes of a botanist on the Amazon & Andes. v. 1 (1908). Contributed in BHL from Smithsonian Libraries.

Schultes’s early research focused on peyote in the American Southwest and intoxicating mushrooms in southern Mexico. He collected specimens, identified species, and recorded local knowledge of medicinal uses and experiences.

Page 10. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Mexico, 1938. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

After receiving his doctorate from Harvard University in 1941, Schultes began research on curare in the Amazon with the help of a 10-month travel grant from the National Research Council. He took the opportunity to collect specimens of many plants and discuss local uses with Indigenous communities.

He was in the field when the United States entered World War II and immediately joined the war effort. He was told to remain in the Amazon to try to find sources of much-needed rubber for the Allied Forces. He continued to work for the United States Department of Agriculture for the next twelve years, collecting approximately 3,500 specimens of the Hevea rubber tree. During his career in the Amazon, Schultes would collect over 24,000 botanical specimens.

Pages 2-3. Schultes, Richard Evans. Hevea yield notebook : Colombia, 1944. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Schultes returned to New England in 1953 and became the curator of the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium at Harvard University. He continued to travel extensively to the Amazon while holding a number of positions at the Harvard University Botanical Museum and was a Harvard faculty member until his retirement as Professor Emeritus in 1985.

Schultes himself defined ethnobotany as “the complete registration of the uses of and concepts about plant life in primitive societies… comprising aspects of botany, anthropology, archeology, plant chemistry, pharmacology, history, geography, and sundry other tangential fields of the sciences and arts” (Kahn, 1992). His notebooks demonstrate his commitment to documenting knowledge beyond biology. Indigenous languages are captured on the pages, including place names and common words.

List of rivers and plants in several local languages. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Colombia, 1952. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Common phrases. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Colombia, 1952 February-March. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Schultes’s maps, lists, and recipes are a trove of information about difficult to access areas.

Detailed river map. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Colombia, 1952 February-March. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Plant list. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Rio Negro and Rio Vaupés, Amazonas, Brazil, 1947 September-November. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Making coca with an aromatic resin for flavouring. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Colombia, 1952 February-March. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Throughout his travels, Schultes documented the local medicinal uses of hundreds of plants.

Medicinal uses of plants by the Inga and Kamëntsá people of Colombia. Schultes, Richard Evans. Field notebook : Colombia, 1942 February-April. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries.

Schultes was well known for being respectful of Indigenous communities. He immersed himself in the cultures, eating what was offered and participating in rituals.

“I have tried several of the Indian hallucinogens, in part because the Indians consider them sacred plants and it would have been an unpardonable rudeness to refuse them when the Indians were kind enough to offer them to me during a ceremony” (Schultes, 1994).

Schultes advocated for the conservation of habitat, species, and Indigenous knowledge but he also understood the practical and economic aspects. He encouraged research into the chemistry and uses of plants as pharmaceuticals, recognizing that the vast habitat destruction and cultural loss occurring in the Amazon could delay the development of important medicines. (An overview of the many medicinal uses of plants is central to Schultes’s 1986 paper “The Reason for Ethnobotanical Conservation”.)

Page 2. Schultes, Richard Evans. “De Plantis Toxicariis E Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes XXVI: Ethnopharmacological Notes On The Flora Of Northwestern South America.” Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University. v. 28 (1980), pgs. 1-45. Contributed in BHL from Missouri Botanical Garden with permission from Harvard University Herbaria. CC-BY-NC-SA.

In a 1994 article, he writes:

“…in many regions of the Amazon Basin, native plant and animal species are being destroyed faster than can be recorded, classified and studied…Why not regard the Indians in the Amazon Basin as a kind of phytochemical rapid-assessment team already on the ground, which could help locate the most promising plants for chemical and pharmacological evaluation?…The Indians’ botanical knowledge is disappearing even faster than the plants themselves” (Schultes 1994).

Schultes is regarded as one of the founding fathers of the international conservation movement, having advocated for conservation in developing areas since the 1940s. He mentored many graduate students, infusing them with the same respect and concern for the preservation of natural environments and local knowledge.

Schultes contributed to over 350 publications and served on editorial boards for several scientific periodicals. He also wrote and spoke to lay audiences on many occasions, always emphasizing the need to study and preserve Indigenous botanical knowledge, concluding:

“It is therefore our responsibility – nay, our duty – to put ourselves in the forefront of ethnobotanical conservation. We cannot allow such precious funds of knowledge to become extinct” (Schultes 1988b).

“Unless strong conservation measures are strictly enforced, many species and even some genera may become extinct. It is vitally important to preserve as many sources of germplasm as possible for the benefit of future generations” (Schultes 1990).

Schultes, Richard Evans. “Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World.” Arnoldia, v. 50(2), pgs. 21-33. Contributed in BHL from Harvard University Botany Libraries with permission from The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. CC-BY-NC-SA.

Schultes was the recipient of the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement and the World Wildlife Fund Gold Medal in 1984, and the Harvard Medal and the Linnean Medal in 1992. Three genera and over 120 species bear his name. In 1986, the government of Colombia designated a 2.2 million acre protected area as “Sector Schultes” in his honor.

“Richard Evans Schultes, the great 20^th century ethnobotanist, was deeply concerned with the fate of the tropical forests of the Earth,” states Felipe Cárdenas-Arroyo. “His work in search of medicinal plants was an important contribution to humanity. But in order for this work to continue, he knew that forests and the Natives who inhabit them need to be protected. Well aware that conserving both would guarantee a healthy planet for all of us, he voiced his concern for the future of the tropical forests and its people” [1].

Additional Information

The Richard Evans Schultes papers, containing Schultes’s field notes, photographs and botanical records, are held by the Botany Libraries in the Harvard University Herbaria.

Contained within the digitized materials in BHL are published articles and papers, field notebooks, lists of collected and identified plants, maps, and photographic materials. The Harvard University Herbaria contains many of the specimens collected by Schultes from North and South America.

For an interactive geospatial exhibit of Schultes’s work in Mexico and the Amazon, see The Amazonian Travels of Richard Evans Schultes.

References

Amazon Conservation Team. The Amazonian Travels of Richard Evans Schultes. https://www.banrepcultural.org/schultes/

Kahn, E. J. “Jungle Botanist [Richard Evans Schultes]”. The New Yorker. v. 68: pp. 35-58. 1992.

Sequeira, Luis. “Richard Evans Schultes : January 12, 1915-April 10, 2001”. National Academy of Sciences (U.S.). Biographical Memoirs ; v. 88. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2006.

Schultes, Richard. “Burning the Library of Amazonia.” Sciences 34, no. 2, pp. 24. 1994.

Schultes, Richard Evans. “Ethnopharmacological Conservation: A Key to Progress in Medicine.” Acta Amazonica, vol. 18, no. suppl. 1-2, pp. 393–406. 1988a.

Schultes, Richard Evans. “Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World”. Arnoldia, vol. 50, no. 2, pp. 21-33. 1990.

Schultes, Richard Evans. “Primitive Plant Lore & Modern Conservation”. Orion Nature Quarterly ; v. 7, No. 3, Summer 1988. New York, NY: Myrin Institute, 1988b.

Schultes, Richard Evans. The Reason for Ethnobotanical Conservation. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India, v. 28, no.1-4, 1986, pp. 203-224. Calcutta, India: Director, Botanical Survey of India, 1986.

Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement. https://tylerprize.org/laureates/past-laureates/1987-tyler-laureates/

[1] Cárdenas-Arroyo, Felipe. January and February 2020. Email exchange with Diane Rielinger.

Map of eastern North America. Detail of engraved map by Nicolaes Jansz Visscher, made about 1655, not long after Josselyn’s first journey to the New World. Note the prominent, plump turkey. Gift of Mrs. Francis P. Garvan, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution

It is a small book, palm-size, with pages of less-than-fine paper, the well-worn letters of the type sometimes carelessly inked. The sparse woodcut illustrations are child-like in their simplicity and straight-forwardness. Yet John Josselyn’s New-Englands rarities discovered, printed in London in 1672, drew me in as I went about cataloging the work. Intrigued by the title and the early date of publication, I found myself reading an account of the landscape of my past, from Boston, “down east” (that is, up the coast as represented in the above illustration) to my place of birth, and points all around. That great bibliography, The Hunt Botanical Catalogue, notes that this book is “particularly interesting to people who are fond of Maine.” Indeed. The text provides a sense of place from the 17^th century.

Having refreshed my self here [Boston] for some time, and opportunely lighting upon a passage in a Bark belonging to a Friend of my Brothers, and bound to the Eastward, I put to sea again, and on the Fifteenth of August I arrived at Black-point, otherwise called Scarborow, the habitation of my beloved Brother, being about an hundred leagues to the Eastward of Boston; here I resided eight years, and made it my business to discover all along the Natural, Physical, and Chyrurgical Rarities of the New-found World.

BHL digitized copy, supplied by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library.

New-Englands rarities is an account of the author’s two journeys to America, the first in 1638 for several months and again in 1663 for a stay of eight years. Despite the autobiographical nature of the work, not much is known of Josselyn, “active” in cataloging parlance, from 1630 to 1675, and born around 1608 in Essex County. The author comes across as a learned, if not terribly discerning, gentleman with possibly a medical background. He describes the topography, customs and the natural history of the country, with great interest in the healing properties of organic materials from recipes used by both native Americans and colonists, leading to speculation that the Englishman was a physician. It may be Josselyn was simply well-read and the curious type. The era of European plant exploration in the New World, for both therapeutic, consumption and ornamental purposes, was underway by the time of Josselyn’s travels. There would be a ready audience for such information, particularly in a relatively accessible and inexpensive publication.

Prouts Neck. Painting by Winslow Homer (1836-1910), Smithsonian American Art Museums

“Scarborow” is the coastal area of Scarborough, incorporated as a town in 1658 in the present state of Maine. One of the area settlements was “Black-point” (originally a patent of 1500 acres) that included the rocky shoreline of present-day Prouts Neck, of artist Winslow Homer-fame (a place now known for exclusiveness). It was here that John Josselyn’s brother Henry lived and worked along the sea, rivers, stretches of salt marshes and sandy beaches. Henry Josselyn was representing the Royal grant of land, Council of Gorges’ Province of Maine, by 1636, and later served as Deputy-Governor.

There is some evidence that Henry Josselyn may have ascended the highest mountain in the Northeast, the 6,288-foot (1,917-meter) Mount Washington. His brother John, as did Giovanni da Verrazano in 1524, observed and recorded the peak (known by various names before European settlement) from shipboard in the Atlantic Ocean as “one stately mountain…surmounting the rest”:

“Fourscore miles (upon a direct line) to the Northwest of Scarborow, a Ridge of Mountains run Northwest and Northeast an hundred Leagues, known by the name of the White Mountains, upon which lieth Snow all year, and is a Land-mark twenty miles off at Sea.”

Skiing at Tuckerman’s Ravine, Mt. Washington, N. H. Watercolor by Arnold Holeywell (1923-2010). Smithsonian American Art Museum, gift of the Ford Motor Company

John Josselyn’s further writings indicate that he probably also summited the mountain (as I did one June, when there was still snow on the slopes). Now a not-particularly arduous but long day’s hike in good weather along groomed trails, it was not a casual undertaking in the 1660’s. It is a volatile place with fierce, sometimes unpredictable, weather. The Josselyns probably journeyed along the magnificent Saco River, south of Scarborough, to reach the range. There John Josselyn made meteorological observations (The Mount Washington Observatory on April 12, 1934, recorded the wind at 231 miles per hour, a record that held through the 20^th century).

April 7, 2011 is World Health Day. This year, the focus of World Health Day is Antimicrobial resistance, which is a type of drug resistance where microorganisms are able to survive exposure to antibiotics. To combat the spread of this problem, the World Health Organization is releasing a six-point policy package. These six points include:

• Commit to a comprehensive, financed national plan with accountability and civil Society engagement
• Strengthen surveillance and laboratory capacity
• Ensure uninterrupted access to essential medicines of assured quality
• Regulate and promote rational use of medicines, including in animal husbandry, and ensure proper patient care
• Reduce use of antimicrobials in food-producing animals
• Enhance infection prevention and control
• Foster innovations and research and development for new tools

For our recognition of World Health Day, we thought we’d highlight one of our rare books on medicinal plants. So, this week we feature A Curious Herbal: Containing Five Hundred Cuts, of the Most Useful Plants, Which are Now Used in the Practice of Physick Engraved on Folio Copper Plates (1737-39), by Elizabeth Blackwell. The purpose of this work, as is stated in the Introduction, is,

“The Undertaker, being desirous to make this Work more useful to such as are not furnished with other Herbals, is resolved (for their sake) to give a short description of each plant, the place of growth, and time of flowering, with its common uses in physick, chiefly extracted from Mr. Joseph Miller’s Botanicum Officinale with his consent, and the ordinary names of the plant in different languages.”

For our post, we selected just a few of the five hundred plants discussed in this work, and present them to you. Take a look at these, examine the many other natural remedies not presented in this post, and read more about World Health Day and consider what you might be able to do to help.

• Dandelion (Taraxacum)

Useful for “provoking urine and strengthening the stomach”

• Wild Rose (Rosa carolina)

Strengthens the stomach, cools the heat of fevers, as well as useful in the treatment of “coughs, spitting of blood, and scurvey”

• The Ivy Tree (Hedera)

“Mr. Boyle commends a large dose of the full ripe berries as a remedy against the plague. The gum is said to take spots and freckles out of the face.

• 
• Staves-acre (Delphinium staphisagria)

Can be used as a remedy for tooth-aches and to kill Lice

• Dragons (Dracontium)

Useful for treatment of pestilential fevers, “and is useful to drive anything out from the heart, for which it is given in the small pox and measles”

• Goldy-Locks (Helichrysum arenarium)

Useful for treating “obstructions of the liver and spleen,” and is used to “dissolve congealed blood and to provoke urine”

This week’s book of the week, A Curious Herbal: Containing Five Hundred Cuts, of the Most Useful Plants, Which are Now Used in the Practice of Physick Engraved on Folio Copper Plates (1737-39), by Elizabeth Blackwell, was contributed by the Missouri Botanical Garden.

It’s one of the most frequently downloaded books from BHL. It was compiled over thirty years, in twelve volumes, and contains 794 copper plate engravings. It depicts and describes the flora of Asia and the tropics, focusing on the medicinal properties of the flora in the Indian state of Kerala. Species names are recorded in such languages as Konkani, Arabic, Malayalam, and Latin. It contains the type illustrations of many species, and was first published in Amsterdam in 1678-1693. Edited by nearly a hundred physicians, professors of medicine and botany, amateur botanists, technicians, illustrators, engravers, officials and clergymen, the work was conceived of by the then-governor of the Dutch administration in Kochi, Hendrik van Rheede.

Enough talk! What is it, you ask?

Answer: Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, one of the most important early works on the medicinal properties of various flora.

Hortus Indicus Malabaricus has also been the recent focus of a special publication of Samagra, a journal published by the Centre for Research in Indigenous Knowledge, Science and Culture. This special issue discusses the recent discovery of the previously unidentified creator of the first volume’s Frontispiece (now identified as the Dutch Golden Age artist Gerard de Lairesse), a discussion of the contributions of the Hungarian Theologians involved with the work, as well as an analysis on the medicinal plants described within the work.

Spend some time exploring one of the most popular works in BHL, and read what modern-day researchers are still discovering about the work in the special issue of Samagra, entitled, appropriately, “Hortus Malabaricus: Special Issue.” The exotic East and its flora await you!